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: Major powers (Habsburgs vs. France) fought for European hegemony.

: A turning point where Ottoman expansion into Europe was definitively halted.

: The struggle between Catholics and Protestants (Reformation vs. Counter-Reformation) became a central driver of European politics.

This treaty ended the war and laid the foundation for modern international relations:

This was the first "all-European" war, involving most states of the continent. : The Habsburg Bloc : Austria and Spain (Catholic).

: Established that each ruler has the right to determine the religion of their state.

: The war was devastating for Germany, which lost up to one-third of its population due to combat, famine, and disease. III. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

: France and Sweden gained significant lands; the independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland was officially recognized.